Published research
Water hardness and digestive diseases: a large-scale population-based prospective cohort study
A nationwide prospective cohort study investigating non-linear relationships between domestic water hardness and sixteen digestive diseases.
Research question
Is domestic water hardness associated with the future risk of digestive diseases at the population level?
Study
The study linked residential water-hardness exposure with health outcomes in approximately 356,000 UK Biobank participants. Associations were evaluated across sixteen digestive conditions, with subgroup and exposure-response analyses.
Key finding
Water hardness showed non-linear associations with multiple digestive outcomes. Higher hardness was inversely associated with several conditions, including dyspepsia and constipation, while moderate hardness was associated with higher risk for some outcomes, indicating that the relationship is not uniformly protective or harmful.
Authorship
First author.
Publication
International Journal of Surgery · published online 2025
Publication record